On Tokenized deposits, Interoperability, and Digital Central Bank Money:
I’m putting together an article on this, but it’s fascinating to see how deposit tokenization is opening the door to some massively important decisions for the future of the financial system and crucially, how not just anything goes.
In this piece, I want to start from the premise that I'm sticking to the two-tier hierarchy of money, meaning obligations must be settled in central bank money.
I don't think anyone can really argue with that. There’s no viable alternative right now that can compete with this framework, nor is there any real push from central banks or governments to change it.
So, let's work under the assumption that if the residual of an obligation is settled in something other than central bank money, it’s not actually being settled. It’s just being transferred to another counterparty who, unless they can net it out, will eventually have to settle it in central bank money anyway.
Operating on that premise, commercial banks tokenizing their deposits will have to make decisions across several layers. First: why am I tokenizing my deposits? Is it for on-us transfers between branches, to join a specific initiative, or simply to avoid being left behind?
Next is what I call the LSM (Liquidity Saving Mechanism) layer.
This is essentially about finding ways to save liquidity to avoid settling as much residual as possible, without compromising balance sheet risk (remember, we use central bank money for settlement to eliminate counterparty risk and ensure the par value of each settlement unit).
You have a few options here. One could be 24/7 A2A atomic gross settlement for every payment. It’s arguably the safest and fastest, but definitely the least efficient and probably impossible to scale, unless there’s a massive shift in the incentives and business models surrounding "liquidity" (which, at the end of the day, is just someone's ability to provide immediacy and balance sheet capacity).
That’s why I call it LSM: this is where you decide to join an initiative to make your deposits interoperable. Within that interoperability layer, your goal is to minimize the liquidity you need to use.
You’ll look for the most efficient netting combinations while balancing the SLA so no parties are left exposed or unhappy, which could compromise your efficiency. But even then, you can't completely eliminate the residual that has to flow down to the next layer (central bank money) because you have to assume flows are never perfectly symmetrical across the board (keeping it simple and high-level here).
Then comes the last layer: funding the residual across operational silos.
I call this the LMT layer, Liquidity Management Transfer, borrowing the term from FedNow and from Duffie’s discussion of transfers between reserve accounts and prefunded or omnibus positions.
An LMT is the transfer that moves central-bank money, or a fully funded claim on it, from the silo where the balance sits to the silo where the obligation must be extinguished.
We talk about the hierarchy of money and rarely about this fragmentation inside it. A bank can hold reserves and still be unable to pay: its master-account balance is not its RTP position, and a Fedwire-funded pay-in to CLS is no longer balance it can spend on Fedwire.
That is why systems need an explicit rail, in FedNow, a pacs.009, to reallocate liquidity between those positions.
So, how does all this tie into tokenized deposits?
As mentioned earlier, we have the deposits, the coordination, and the LSM layer. But what happens if there’s a residual? We need the central bank.
The central bank basically has 3 ways to adapt its deposits (reserves) to this new system:
- wCBDC: It issues its own wholesale CBDC.
- sCBDC: A third party, along with a consortium of banks, creates an omnibus account to hold and tokenize reserves.
- Synchronization: Reserves aren't tokenized; instead, states are simply synchronized rather than being shared on a single ledger.
Now you can see why I call this the LMT layer: the instrument that synchronizes all of these ultimately depends on the ultimate settlement asset, which is central bank money.
So, it’s no longer just about the interoperability design between different tokenized deposits. It's also about how these initiatives will eventually connect to the final settlement instrument.
This could mean your initiative is incredibly efficient in isolation, but the residual ends up making your business model completely useless at scale because it drives up costs everywhere else.